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Reconstruction Vs Republican Reconstruction Essay

The Civil war came to an end in 1865 after the Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to the Union. The Civil War left a huge number of destructions along the way in the North and the South. The North were required to reconstruct the Confederate States. And that caused the appearance of the Reconstruction Era in 1865. It was a period in which Americans â€Å"put the pieces together†. People were split after the Civil War, some wanted to reconstruct the Confederate states- where it is politically and economically damaged- and the others wanted to have revenge against the South because they caused the war that resulted with memories of death and suffer the Americans had to endure. And that was a reason of the emerging of the Presidential†¦show more content†¦They believed in three things, first, they were mad at the South because they had caused the war. Second, they wanted to punish them. Third, they wanted to help the slaves who are now considered as freemen af ter the war ended. the Radical Republicans didn’t like Andrew Johnson’s plans, which are almost mirrored his previous president Abraham Lincoln, they felt that he did not pay attention to the major issue, which was the rights and protection for slaves, and because of that Andrew was considered weak and was impeached in 1868. Even though he was considered a southerner and should sympathize with the South except he was considered a racist for ignoring the blacks and consecrating only about the white men. The Presidential Reconstruction which was led by Andrew Johnson was considered harsh towards the South. Johnson believed that African Americans doesn’t deserve to vote, he thinks that they can’t manage their own life so they should stay slaves for white men. He believed that black men should emigrate out of the states. Johnson returned all property to the Confederates who supported the 13th amendment and pledged loyalty to the North States, but, he didn’t return their slaves. Johnson vision of Reconstruction was considered a fail because African Americans are still treated badly, and Black Codes were established by white powerful rich men, which was designed to restrict the freeShow MoreRelatedRight After The Civil War892 Words   |  4 Pages1870s to the turn of the 20th century because there were a lot of people against them. With the beginning of reconstruction era in the south in 1870, African Americans are now seeking for a bright future socially and economically speaking. In the presidential elections of 1876, Repubilcans challenge the results in the south, and congress appopints a committee of 7 democrats, 7 republicans and 1 independent. The committee voted in favor of Hayes by 8-7 votes and Hayes wins, even though, Samuel J.Read MoreAfrican Transformation from 1865-19201832 Words   |  8 Pagesof the other races. With the end of the Civil War, African Americans went through a lot of change with the end of slavery. Throughout this essay I will explain the legislature, economic, philosophies, leaders, movement of people and other factors that contributed to the drastic change of the African American people between 1865 to 1920. In 1865 Reconstruction stared after the end of the civil war. Even though President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, Slavery did not officially end untilRead MoreThe Civil Rights Act Of 19641827 Words   |  8 Pagesare implied within the text of the Constitution. 2. Minority-majority District: This is the gerrymandering that specifically affects those based on their racial or ethnic background. This was very prevalent problem during the Reconstruction era and post-Reconstruction Era. Many whites within the South would redraw district lines placing blacks in very narrow districts or by scattering blacks across the state in order for their political influence to be dwindled tremendously. This tact was usedRead MoreThe Right to Bear Arms1866 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction In this essay highlighting the second amendment, I will focus mostly on the right to bear arms. The Second Amendment states, â€Å" A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.† I think that the founders put this in the constitution to keep the sense of freedom they had in England concerning arms, and other than a small force of paid officers, the United States had no professional, trainedRead MorePolitical Parties And The Democratic Party2072 Words   |  9 Pages Misiow August 12, 2015 AP Government Essay Throughout U.S. history there have been two political parties who compete against each other, in order to run the nation. These political parties are known as the Republican Party, commonly known as the Grand Old Party, and the Democratic Party. Each party has a symbol of representation, in particular the elephant symbolizes the Republican Party. Thomas Nast created this symbol to portray that the Republicans are strong and dignified. The party wasRead MoreHist405 Full Course Latest 2015 Spring [ All Discussions , All Quizes and All Assignments ]3084 Words   |  13 Pagesbrief and that their side would win. What advantages did each side hold that made them feel this way? Elaborate. Reconstruction (graded) Lincoln had one plan for bringing the rebel states back into the Union; Andrew Johnson another; and the Radical Republican Congress a third. Discuss the aims of each president, and explain why and in what ways Congress took control of Reconstruction. week 5 America and the Industrial Revolution (graded) Describe the basic industries of America’s IndustrialRead MoreThe Theories Of Power Within A State Essay2041 Words   |  9 Pagesconcentrated, Pluralism focuses on how power is distributed while Marxism focuses on class conflict and economic power (Barry, 2016). The purpose of this essay is to establish the variations between these dimensions but also identify key similarities in order to understand the reason each exists and why one is a threat to the other. This essay, in a less rigorous manner, aims to investigate an alternative theory, which can be suggested to states that don’t want to adopt either of these concepts.Read MoreU.S. history Apex 7.1.3 Final Exam2072 Words   |  9 Pagesand Africa come together, and what sort of nation did they build? Section 1: Short Answer (60 points) In this section, you will show your knowledge of the content by constructing a three-paragraph essay. Remember to use examples from this unit, be specific, and follow proper paragraph- and essay-writing conventions. A. Explain how Texas became an American state. (1 point each, 6 points total) Why did Americans settle in the Mexican territory of Texas? Mexico offered free land to the AmericansRead MoreHalf Slave And Half Free By Bruce Levine2094 Words   |  9 Pagesdefined â€Å"Practice† as the conduct of policy, such as opinion, election, parties and law-making (Lecture). We define Policy as the goals of politics, those being sovereignty, defense, and a collective well-being (Lecture). The following analytical essay will examine antislavery sentiment and practices in the Northern states and the reaction of Southern states. Additionally how the pressures from both sides influenced the Policy of the United States following independence then leading up to the CivilRead MoreGp Essay Mainpoints24643 Words   |  99 Pages GP NOTES 2010 (ESSAY) Content Page 1. Media a. New vs. Traditional b. New: narcissistic? c. Government Censorship d. Profit-driven Media e. Advertising f. Private life of public figures g. Celebrity as a role model h. Blame media for our problems i. Power + Responsibility of Media j. Media ethics k. New Media and Democracy 2. Science/Tech a. Science and Ethics b. Government and scientist role in science c. Rely too much on technology? d. Nuclear technology

Sexual Harassment At The Workplace - 1697 Words

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Eva L. Mendez-Zacher MG260, Business Law I 28 September 2014 Dr. Anita Whitby Abstract I’m conducting a study on Sexual harassment in the workplace. Sexual harassment is possible in all social and economic classes, ethnic groups, jobs and places in the community. Through this study I hope to clarify the common misconception that sexual harassment is an isolated female problem. Although the majority of the cases reported are in fact male on female offenses, sexual harassment is not gender specific. Cases have been reported based on female on male harassment, as well as same gender harassment. Sexual harassment is a growing epidemic that can be controlled though proper enforcement of company polices and regulations. Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Sexual harassment in the work place can be defined, as a form of sexual discrimination that involves unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and verbal or physical conduct sexual in nature capable of creating a hostile work environment. The harasser can be the victim s supervisor, a supervisor in another area, a co-worker, or someone who is not an employee of the employer, such as a client or customer. The reason for my study is to inform and educate the public on how to prevent, address, and report these forms of unsolicited sexual advances. The two types of sexual harassment that are legally recognized are: 1. Quid Pro Quo Sexual HarassmentShow MoreRelatedSexual Harassment At The Workplace1697 Words   |  7 PagesSexual Harassment in the Workplace Eva L. Mendez-Zacher MG260, Business Law I 28 September 2014 Dr. Anita Whitby Abstract I’m conducting a study on Sexual harassment in the workplace. Sexual harassment is possible in all social and economic classes, ethnic groups, jobs and places in the community. Through this study I hope to clarify the common misconception that sexual harassment is an isolated female problem. Although the majority of the cases reported are in fact male on femaleRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace990 Words   |  4 PagesIt is great to have a workplace where you are friends with your coworkers. But what happens when coworkers talk about other coworkers in a sexual context. Two male coworkers talking about female staff where coworkers in the area can hear. Your manager suggests that they can help you earn a promotion if you go out with them. This puts employees in awkward situations where they might not know if this is considered sexual harassment. If it is, an employee maybe unsure what to do about it. AccordingRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace963 W ords   |  4 PagesSexual Harassment in the Workplace There are federal laws put in position to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace. Most employees sometimes don’t even realize what sexual harassment is are when they are committing this violation. On the flip side an employee may not realized when they are being sexually harassed and when is the appropriate time to speak up. Education on sexual harassment has increased within the workplace as cases are more public and fines are getting steeper. In this researchRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace1396 Words   |  6 PagesEssay #3 Sexual harassment in the workplace has always been an issue, even before women were introduced into the working environment in the twentieth century. In recent years this issue may have become more publicized than before and not as overlooked as it used to be, but it unfortunately affects people all across the nation, both men and women alike. From that fast food chain where your kid is working at, to that fortune 500 company you’ve never heard of, it is happening. Over the last severalRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace2180 Words   |  9 PagesSexual harassment is among the many factors that make employees uncomfortable at the workplace. This vice is a sum of all the unwelcomed advances of sexual nature that employees go through from their colleagues or superiors. There is no gender limit to sexual harassment since both males and females may be coerced to engage in some things for sexual favours. Sexual harassment takes both verbal and physical form. Since managers are responsible for the provision of a comfortable working environmentRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace1253 Words   |  6 PagesSexual Harassment in the Workplace What cause sexual harassment in the workplace? Sexual harassment is defined as discrimination towards sex. It is unwanted verbal and/or physical contact between two human beings, however, in this case I would like to focus on the workplace (co-worker or supervisor). Based on Civil Rights Act of 1991, there has been an increased amount of incentives for employer’s prohibition conducts of sexual harassment. How people perceive and evaluate sexual harassmentRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace1697 Words   |  7 PagesSexual Harassment in the Work Place: Building More Awareness In today’s society, sexual harassment in the workplace has become a problem. This problem should have more attention and awareness provided to help stop these situations from happening. Sexual harassment can happen anywhere, at any time, and to everyone. It does not discriminate and effects all ethnicity, genders, age, and races. Due to the larger number of cases presented in courts today, sexual harassment in the workplace continues toRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace1359 Words   |  6 Pagesfor any company to legally define what constitutes sexual harassment in the workplace, but there are many ways to define sexual harassment. Everyone has different views and tolerance levels towards sexual harassment. When a case of sexual harassment occurs in a workplace, however, it comes down to how the courts define sexual harassment. The Supreme Court defines sexual harassment to be unlawful in two ways. â€Å"The first type involves sexual harassment that results in a t angible employment action;† thisRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace Essay1466 Words   |  6 PagesSexual Harassment in the Workplace Introduction Sexual harassment is an ethical problem in the workplace. Sexual harassment is defined as unwelcome verbal, visual, or physical conduct of a sexual nature. It can affect your working conditions and creates a hostile work environment. It can also affect productivity, satisfaction, retention, patient care and safety, your physical well-being and mental health. It can also cause low staff morale, increased absenteeism and attrition of staff. This studentRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace1608 Words   |  7 Pagessubject to sexual harassment ranging from sexually degrading comments to physical acts of sexual assault. Unfortunately for the women working at the mine, that was only the beginning of the harassment they’d experience. If this was not damaging enough, women were deterred, if not, outright sanctioned for reporting instances of harassment to management. It is reasonable to assume that culture at Pearson Taconite and Steel fostered a hostile work environment for women. Though the issue of sexual harassment Sexual Harassment At The Workplace - 1697 Words Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Eva L. Mendez-Zacher MG260, Business Law I 28 September 2014 Dr. Anita Whitby Abstract I’m conducting a study on Sexual harassment in the workplace. Sexual harassment is possible in all social and economic classes, ethnic groups, jobs and places in the community. Through this study I hope to clarify the common misconception that sexual harassment is an isolated female problem. Although the majority of the cases reported are in fact male on female offenses, sexual harassment is not gender specific. Cases have been reported based on female on male harassment, as well as same gender harassment. Sexual harassment is a growing epidemic that can be controlled though proper enforcement of company polices and regulations. Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Sexual harassment in the work place can be defined, as a form of sexual discrimination that involves unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and verbal or physical conduct sexual in nature capable of creating a hostile work environment. The harasser can be the victim s supervisor, a supervisor in another area, a co-worker, or someone who is not an employee of the employer, such as a client or customer. The reason for my study is to inform and educate the public on how to prevent, address, and report these forms of unsolicited sexual advances. The two types of sexual harassment that are legally recognized are: 1. Quid Pro Quo Sexual HarassmentShow MoreRelatedSexual Harassment At The Workplace990 Words   |  4 PagesIt is great to have a workplace where you are friends with your coworkers. But what happens when coworkers talk about other coworkers in a sexual context. Two male coworkers talking about female staff where coworkers in the area can hear. Your manager suggests that they can help you earn a promotion if you go out with them. This puts employees in awkward situations where they might not know if this is considered sexual harassment. If it is, an employee maybe unsure what to do about it. AccordingRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace963 Words   |  4 PagesSexual Harassment in the Workplace There are federal laws put in position to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace. Most employees sometimes don’t even realize what sexual harassment is are when they are committing this violation. On the flip side an employee may not realized when they are being sexually harassed and when is the appropriate time to speak up. Education on sexual harassment has increased within the workplace as cases are more public and fines are getting steeper. In this researchRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace1396 Words   |  6 PagesEssay #3 Sexual harassment in the workplace has always been an issue, even before women were introduced into the working environment in the twentieth century. In recent years this issue may have become more publicized than before and not as overlooked as it used to be, but it unfortunately affects people all across the nation, both men and women alike. From that fast food chain where your kid is working at, to that fortune 500 company you’ve never heard of, it is happening. Over the last severalRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace2180 Words   |  9 PagesSexual harassment is among the many factors that make employees uncomfortable at the workplace. This vice is a sum of all the unwelcomed advances of sexual nature that employees go through from their colleagues or superiors. There is no gender limit to sexual harassment since both males and females may be coerced to engage in some things for sexual favours. Sexual harassment takes both verbal and physical form. Since managers are responsible for the provision of a comfortable working environmentRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace1253 Words   |  6 PagesSexual Harassment in the Workplace What cause sexual harassment in the workplace? Sexual harassment is defined as discrimination towards sex. It is unwanted verbal and/or physical contact between two human beings, however, in this case I would like to focus on the workplace (co-worker or supervisor). Based on Civil Rights Act of 1991, there has been an increased amount of incentives for employer’s prohibition conducts of sexual harassment. How people perceive and evaluate sexual harassmentRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace1697 Words   |  7 PagesSexual Harassment in the Work Place: Building More Awareness In today’s society, sexual harassment in the workplace has become a problem. This problem should have more attention and awareness provided to help stop these situations from happening. Sexual harassment can happen anywhere, at any time, and to everyone. It does not discriminate and effects all ethnicity, genders, age, and races. Due to the larger number of cases presented in courts today, sexual harassment in the workplace continues toRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace1359 Words   |  6 Pagesfor any company to legally define what constitutes sexual harassment in the workplace, but there are many ways to define sexual harassment. Everyone has different views and tolerance levels towards sexual harassment. When a case of sexual harassment occurs in a workplace, however, it comes down to how the courts define sexual harassment. The Supreme Court defines sexual harassment to be unlawful in two ways. â€Å"The first type involves sexual harassment that results in a t angible employment action;† thisRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace Essay1466 Words   |  6 PagesSexual Harassment in the Workplace Introduction Sexual harassment is an ethical problem in the workplace. Sexual harassment is defined as unwelcome verbal, visual, or physical conduct of a sexual nature. It can affect your working conditions and creates a hostile work environment. It can also affect productivity, satisfaction, retention, patient care and safety, your physical well-being and mental health. It can also cause low staff morale, increased absenteeism and attrition of staff. This studentRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace1608 Words   |  7 Pagessubject to sexual harassment ranging from sexually degrading comments to physical acts of sexual assault. Unfortunately for the women working at the mine, that was only the beginning of the harassment they’d experience. If this was not damaging enough, women were deterred, if not, outright sanctioned for reporting instances of harassment to management. It is reasonable to assume that culture at Pearson Taconite and Steel fostered a hostile work environment for women. Though the issue of sexual harassmentRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace1697 Words   |  7 Pages Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Eva L. Mendez-Zacher MG260, Business Law I 28 September 2014 Dr. Anita Whitby Abstract I’m conducting a study on Sexual harassment in the workplace. Sexual harassment is possible in all social and economic classes, ethnic groups, jobs and places in the community. Through this study I hope to clarify the common misconception that sexual harassment is an isolated female problem. Although the majority of the cases reported are in fact male on female

Essentials of Investment †Myassignmenthelp.com

Questions: 1. What is the discounted cash flow concept, and why is it essential for financial managers to understand and employ this important concept? 2. What are the methods associated with evaluating single or periodic payments, and what is at least 1 application of each? 3. Discuss the different methods that can be used to calculate these amounts, and explain how at least 1 of these models can be used? 4. How can the time value of money models or formulas be used to determine the rate of return for an investment or the time it will take for a current sum to grow to a desired future amount? 5. Discuss the "Rule of 72" and how it can be used to estimate how long it takes for money to double at various rates of return? 6. Identify and recommend at least 1 credible Web site that an investor can visit to find the current market value of market indexes such as the Dow Industrial Averages? Answers: 1. Discounted cash flow concept is based on the time value of money and essentially arises since money received at an earlier date is dearer than money received at a later date. This is primarily because money has an opportunity cost and hence while evaluation of projects and various financial proposals it is imperative to consider the timing of the cash flows. It is imperative for financial managers to understand this concept so that they can make prudent financial decisions with regards to investing in projects and considering various proposals for the investment of idle cash reserves of the company. The prudent application of this concept would allow the financial managers to maximise the returns on capital for the company and hence ensure superior performance (Brealey, Myers and Allen, 2008). 2. The methods used for the evaluation of single or periodic payments are given below (Damodaran, 2008).. 1. Present value method This involves the calculation of the present value of the various periodic payments assuming a reasonable opportunity cost usually risk free interest rate that the person assumes to earn. This can be used to estimate the present market price of a bond based on expected future coupon payments at periodic intervals.. 2. Effective annual rate of interest - The effective annual rate of interest on the sum of money that would result in the periodic payments is also an evaluation technique. This can be used to estimate the YTM (Yield Till Maturity) of a given bond. 3. The various methods to determine this amount are given below (Kane and Marcus, 2013). 1. Annuity payment factor In order to evaluate the present value of periodic payments, the annuity payment factor needs to be determined that acts as a discount factor. As a result, the present value of the annuity can be estimated by multiplying the payment in a particular period by the factor. Hence, value of annuity = Annuity payment * Annuity payment factor 2. Cash flow discounting Another method that may be helpful especially when the periodic payments are limited to a few periods is the actual discounting of the individual annuity payments using the given rate of interest. 4. In order to determine the rate of return of investment using the time value of money, the present value of the various cash flows derived during the lifetime of the investment must be equated with the current market value of the investment. This would result in the determination of the discount factor that would lead to the rate of return of investment (Damodaran, 2008). Current price of investment = C1/(1+x) + C2/(1+x)2 + C3/(1+x)3 + ....... + Cn/(1+x)n Where n is the rate of return of investment Additionally, in order to determine the time for a particular investment to grow to a desired future amount, it is imperative to equal the future value of the current investment with the desired future value. On solving this, the time can be determined (Parrino and Kidwell, 2011). Desired future value = Amount invested * (1+ r)t Where t is the number of time periods and can be determined by using the above approach. 5. As per the Rule of 72, the time in years that is required to double the given principal in the case of compound interest is given by 72 divided by the underlying rate of interest. With regards to accuracy, this rule provides highly accurate results if the interest rate lies in the interval of 6-10%. This is a convenient tool to simplify calculations in case of compound interest. In order to estimate the time to double any given principal, input data regarding the underlying interest rate is required (Brealey, Myers and Allen, 2008). For instance if the interest rate ids 8% pa, hence the time required to double the principal or investment would be 72/8 = 9 years. 6. One website that an investor can visit to find the current market value of market indexes is www.bloomberg.com . This website is highly reliable and provides the latest information with regards to not only the US stock indices but also the other significant indices around the globe. References Brealey, R., Myers, S. and Allen, F. (2008), Principles of Corporate Finance, New York: McGraw Hill Publications Damodaran, A. (2008), Corporate Finance, London: Wiley Publications Kane, B.Z. and Marcus, A.J. (2013). Essentials of Investment, Singapore, McGraw-Hill International Parrino, R. and Kidwell, D. (2011), Fundamentals of Corporate Finance, London, Wiley Publicationsa

Why Maglev Essay Example For Students

Why Maglev Essay MagLev technology is entirely different from any form of transportation in operation today, but the basic principles that lie at the foundation are not beyond the understanding of the beginning electricity and magnetism student. It is in the application of these principles to design and optimize an actual train that things get hairy. The basic idea has been researched since the mid-sixties, but it is only now that economically feasible prototypes are being built and governments are seriously looking towards magnets to propel us into the next century. Leading the race is Germany. Their design, the Transrapid 07, is ready for commercial production. It utilizes conventional electromagnets and forces of attraction to levitate the train. A good web site to find out more about German plans for their design is http://transrapid.simplenet.com/index-e.htm The Japanese are investigating an entirely different design involving superconducting magnets to generate huge repulsive forces which levit ate the train. However, their MLU002N is still in experimental stages. For more information, check out http://www.rtri.or.jp/rd/maglev_E.html With a little stretching, the average physics student should be able to comprehend the principles of magnetic levitation and propulsion through synchronous linear motors. To facilitate the process of understanding this complex material, we suggest that the student go through this web site in order. Make sure you understand the basic physics before moving on to the page which applies these principles to magnetically levitated vehicles. We know from experiment that a moving charge exerts a force on other moving charges; we call this effect magnetism. The magnetic force is a field force, meaning that a moving charge sets up a field which in turn exerts a force on other moving charges. The field set up by a given moving charge is found to be perpendicular to its velocity, and to decay with distance from the charge: First, we will examine how magne tic fields are created, then we will calculate their magnitude and direction. We will write a custom essay on Why Maglev specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Some materials can be said to be natural magnets. These magnets dont appear to have any moving charge, so how can they set up magnetic fields? The answer is found at the atomic scale:Electrons circling an atom set up small magnetic fields. In most materials, these fields are aligned in a fairly random manner, so that all of these small fields cancel each other. In a magnet, however, these fields line up to create a net magnetic dipole, so that the object sets up a magnetic field in the surrounding space. A current is a moving charge. Moving charges set up magnetic fields. Thus, a current seems the logical way to create a magnetic field. There are two basic setups which can be used for this purpose:The Biot-Savart Law: in order to find the magnetic field (denoted by the symbol B) produced by a given current distribution, we have to integrate the field at a given test point, P, due to individual current displacements, ids:The equation for the field integral turns out to be a rather complicated one, known as the Biot-Savart Law: Ampres Law: in cetain situations, this integral can be simplified by symmetry. In these situatins, we can use a more fundamental law, known as Ampres Law. This law allows the calculation of the field from the amount of current enclosed by an arbitrary closed loop:The equation for the magnetic field in such a case turns out to be:One of the two most commonly used magnetic field equations is that for a long, straight wire. This equation can be determined from Ampr es Law through the following setup:The equation is then derived as follows:A solenoid is a tightly wound coil of wire carrying a uniform current i : The field inside a solenoid is approximately as shown in the following diagram:We can calculate the field inside a solenoid with n turns per unit length using Ampres Law:We have now examined how magnetic fields are created, and how to calculate their magnitude. Next, we will examine the force felt on moving charges and currents due to magnetic fields. We know that a moving charge sets up a Magnetic Field. We also know that this field sets up a force on other moving charges. This force is perpendicular both to the magnetic field and to the velocity of the charge: Next we will determine how to calculate this force, and then examine an example of particular significance to magnetic levitation: repulsion between parallel wires. For a moving point charge, the magnetic force is proportional to both the magnetic field strength and the velocity of the charge. Furthermore, the direction of this force is perpendicular to both the velocity and the field (direction given by right-hand rule). Thus, the magnetic force is given by:For a current in a wire, the magnetic force is proportional to the current, the length of the wire, and the magnetic field strength. Direction is perpendicular to current direction and magnetic field. Thus, the magnetic force equation looks very similar to that for a moving point charge:The repulsion or attraction between two parallel wires is of particular importance to magnetic levitation. The setup is as follows:If the currents flow in the same direction (as shown), the wires attract. If the currents flow in opposite directions, the wires repel. To calculate the force of repulsion, we first calculate the field produced by wire 1:Next, we use B1 to find the force on wire 2 due to wire 1:We now know how to determine the force on a moving charge due to a magnetic field, and how to determine the force of attraction or repulsion between two currents. Next, we will examine the phenomenon of induced currents, where a changing magnetic field can produce a current. In 1831, Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry conducted similar experiments that demonstrated the following phenomena:In the above illustration, movement of a magnet through a wire loop induces a current in that wire. Reversing the direction in which the magnet travels reverses the current direction. In this experimental setup, opening or closing switch S induces a momentary current, i. The direction of i when closing the switch is opposite the direction when opening the switch. We can conclude from the previous experiments that a change in the magnetic field through a current loop produces an current in that wire. More scientifically, we say that a change in magnetic flux (field through a given area) induces a current in the loop to oppose the change in flux. Quantitatively, we find that the negative rate of change in flux is equal to the electromotive force (EMF) in the wire:For a coil of N turns, the induced EMF is the sum of the voltages from each turn:The direction of these induced currents, according to a principle known as Lenz Law, always opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it. When a large peice of conducting material moves through a magnetic field in such a way that the magnetic flux through the material changes, currents are induced in the material:These currents, known as eddy currents , may produce desired or undesired effects, depending on the situation. Of particular interest to magnetic levitation is the magnetic force produced, which opposes motion through the magnetic field:This induced magnetic force is somewhat analgous to frictional forces: it opposes motion in or out of the magnetic field. In our example of magnetic levitation, this effect becomes significant, as we will see later. We have now examined most of the basic electro-physics involved in magnetic levitation. In the next section, we will begin applying these physics to the magnetically levitated train. A maglev train has a system designed to provide the force for levitation. Since the levitation system is separate from the propulsion system, a designer can choose from various propulsi on systems. One propulsion system uses Linear Synchronous Motors (abbreviated as LSMs). Another propulsion system uses Linear Induction Motors (abbreviated as LIMs). This page focuses on the levitation system that can be used with either type of propulsion system.. This is a cross section of the Magneplane vehicle and its guideway. This setup achieves levitation through repulsion. The propulstion system is not explicity diagrammed in this picture; however, other sources reveal that the Magneplane system uses a LIM. (Image source: page 338, Linear Motion Electromagnetic Systems.)Now we will move on to develop equations to model a simple repulsive levitation system. .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 , .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 .postImageUrl , .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 , .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8:hover , .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8:visited , .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8:active { border:0!important; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8:active , .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8 .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u525e8053b6bf025713919b3ef613ffd8:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Odysseus (1054 words) EssayWe will model the levitation system using two separate coils. One coil is part of the vehicle, and carries a direct current in the counter-clockwise direction (as viewed from above the coil). The second coil is part of the track, and carries a direct current in the opposite (clockwise) direction. In practice, the currents need to be quite large to produce a force strong enough to counteract the weight of the train. The resistance of the coils is a very important factor when the cost of providing the power is considered. Smaller resistances allow for more current to be generated using less power, making the magnetic field induced stronger. For thi s reason, it is most efficient for the coils to be superconducting. However, the cost of superconducting coils and magnets is also considerable. The magnetic field strength at segment AB due the magnetic field created by segment AB isThe force on the upper wire segment AB due the field created by the lower wire segment AB:The picture below illustrates the direction of FAB, which is the green vector on the drawing labeled FB. FB is perpendicular to ray AB, and the vector B. FB is opposite in direction to Fg , and can balance out the force of gravity. Since there are four straight wires comprising each loop, there are four forces acting on the upper loop. Note that the currents in the two loops are traveling in the same direction, which provides a repulsive force. This force provides the lift, or levitating force for the vehicle. From this simple model we have explaned how levitating forces are created. We also can point out a few further considerations:? This setup only addressed the vertical forces acting on the train and assumed that the train was horizontally stable. In reality, maglev trains need some means of horizontal stabilization to keep the train on the track, in a manner of speaking. ? In many maglev systems, the coil setup isnt quite the same as our model explained. The train carries one set of coils, and the track contains a flat conducting surface. The trains coils have a current flowing, but the track conducting surface is completely passive. The moving train coils create a moving magnetic field. This changing magnetic field, or flux, induces eddy currents in the tracks conducting surface. These induced currents then act like the track coil in the model we used. With this in mind, our model is still effective for calculations. ? Our model uses several approximations to make the mathematics mor e concise. One, in our first equation, we assumed that the segment AB was an infinitely long wire. This means that the calculation for B is not exact. This page deals with the systems involved in a Maglev train that use repulsion as the means for attraction. This is a cross section the Krauss-Maffei experimental vehicle and guideway. This setup uses attractiion for levitation and a LIM for propulsion. (Image source: page 27, Linear Motion Electromagnetic Systems.)The setup for the attraction system is very similar to to the setup for the repulsion system, except that the direction of current in one of the coils is reversed, resulting in an attractive force between the coils. Also, the coils are located on an extension of the train that wraps under the track. It is important to notice that as the distance between the two coils decreases, the attractive force increases. Under certain conditions the two coils could get pulled into direct contact, eliminating the air gap between them. This would be very undesirable. Therefore engineers who design attractive levitation system must make use of a secondary system that monitors the air gap distance and can adjust the magnetic field strength appropriately. This secondary system also would make the ride more comfortable for passengers. The magnetic field strength at segment AB due the magnetic field created by segment AB isThe force on the lower wire segment AB due the field created by the upper wire segment AB:The picture below illustrates the direction of FAB, which is the green vector on the drawing labeled FB. FB is perpendicular to ray AB, and the vector B. FB is opposite in direction to Fg , and can balance out the force of gravity. Since there are four straight wires comprising each loop, there are four forces acting on the upper loop. This attractive force provides the lift, or levitating force for the vehicle. Note that the equations are exactly the same, provided that the setups are different. (That is, in the repulsive case, the vehicle coil was above the track coil. In the attractive case presented on this page, the vehicle coil is below the track coil.)Linear motors are analogous to conventional (rotary) motors. A Linear Induction Motor, or LIM, can be visualized by unrolling a conventional induction motor until it is flat. This presentation will explain the qualitative nature of the LIM, without going into the complicated mathematical and physical derivations. We will focus on a three-phase LIM. A LIM consists of two parts, a stator, and a rotor. The stator and rotor consist of magnetically permeable material such as iron. Within the stator, three wires are embedded. Each wire weaves through the stator in a special periodic pattern. In the diagram below, the wires are perpendicular to the plane of the computer screen. Each wire is connected to a sinusoidal current source. The three currents are each 120 degrees out of phase with each other. This setup is called a three-phase current source. The pattern used with a three phase current source is this: A C B A C B Each letter represents a wire. A and A represent the wire that carries current Ia. A and A carry the same current, but point in opposite directions. The same conventions apply to B, B and C, C. This configuration is very useful because it allows the stator to create a moving magnetic field. This moving magnetic field induces currents in the rotor. These induced currents, at any instaneous time, oppose the change in the magnetic field, in accordance with Faradays Law. These induced currents then interact with the moving magnetic field, resulting in a force that moves the rotor along with the moving magnetic field in the stator. LIMs have the ability to move the rotor relative to the stator without any physical contact. This drastically reduces wear and tear on the parts involved and eliminates frictional forces that cause inefficiency. LIMs have the ability to accelerate the rotor from rest up to the speed of the moving magnetic field. LSMs are structurally very similar to LIMs except for one change. The behavior of the two types of linear motors is changed significantly. Both LIMs and LSMs consist of a stator and rotor. Both have three phase currents weaving through the stator. How LSMs differ is that their rotor has two closely spaced direct current wires spaced regularly as the diagram below shows. The moving magnetic field is setup, but the induced currents setup are much smaller than in the LIM case. One reason is that the composition of the rotor may be different: it may be laminated or consist of a material of high electrical resistance. The DC currents are the important factor in LSMs. Look at the diagram below. (Note that the position of the rotor and stator are reversed. Also note the pattern of wires in the stator is A C B A C B )From Applied Electromagnetism, page 578. The force acting on the rotor DC currents due to the track flux tends to to move the rotor to the right. (This can be shown using the right hand rule involving the vertical track flux lines. The horizonal track flux lines do not contribute to the propulsion.)The position of the DC rotor currents is very important. In the diagram above, the rotor currents coming out of the paper are aligned with the leftmost stator wire that is also coming out of the page. This produces the maximum force on the rotor. Now consider what will happen after the diagrams time frame:1. the rotor will move (in relation to its acceleration and velocity) 2. the stators magnetic field will move (in relation to the frequency of the three phase currents) Now, after a small time interal, lets examine the relative positions of the rotor and stator. If the alignment is not the same as the figure, then the force on the rotor will not be the maximum. It should be clear that the Linear Synchronous Motor operates best a t its sychronous speed. Indeed, if the rotor isnt moving close to the synchronous speed, then the LSM will not move the stator at all!If the rotor is close enough to the synchronous speed, then the LSM will be able to accelerate the rotor up to the synchronous speed. .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 , .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 .postImageUrl , .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 , .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22:hover , .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22:visited , .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22:active { border:0!important; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22:active , .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22 .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u2530c1170eb87162ef24e345593cde22:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Timeline of the Revolutionary War EssayNote: the synchronous speed of a LSM can be altered in two main ways:1. by varying the frequency of the three phase currents 2. by varying the number of wires per unit length in the stator and rotor. LSMs, like LIMs, have the ability to move the rotor relative to the stator without any physical contact. This drastically reduces mechanical wear. LSMs do NOT have the ability to accelerate the rotor from rest up to the speed of a quickly moving magnetic field. This means that Maglev trains that use LSM must either make the synchronous speed start very slowly and increase slowly or use a secondary propulsion system for acceleration. from Linear Motion Electromagnetic Systems, page 26. The basic physics of magnetic lift and electrical propulsion are the essentials behind Maglevs energy efficiency. For example, Maglev consumes per trip about one seventh of the energy used by a Boeing 737-300 for a 125-620 mile trip. In addition, Maglev operation is not dependent upon petroleum for its energy; the electrical power can be derived from other sources. The energy efficiency is due to the mechanical efficiency resulting from drastically reduced friction and less enegry lost as heat in the operation of the vehicle. High speed is an inherent characteristic of maglev. Because the operation of the vehicle occurs without physical contact, high speeds are within technological limits. Speeds up to 500 miles per hour are possible, with top speeds usually limited not by physical constraints, but rather by economic considerations. Commercial rail today usually travels at only 200 miles per hour, while Maglev promises at minimum a 300 mile per hour top speed. For short trips, Maglev is competitive with short airplane flights of up to 500 miles! Maglev could be used to effect a fully automated transport system, with goods arriving within seconds of their scheduled time. Combining the reliability and speed advantages, this looks to be a promising possibility. Because lift and guidance forces are distributed over a large area, contact stresses are at a minima. The Linear Motor allows noncontact propulsion and braking, in contrast to conventional rail where severe stresses occur from wheel/rail contact and by power transfer. A low cost maintenance program is a certain advantage associated with this technology. Drag Forces: Magnetic and AerodynamicWhen a conductor moves through a magnetic field, the changing flux induces electric currents as reviewed in the induction page of the Basic Physics section. These eddy currents then react with the magnetic field in such a way as to brake motion through the field. Due to of this phenomenon, a part of the propulsion energy is spent counteracting the drag force. As the table from Linear Motion Magnetic Systems shows, the drag force increases as the speed increases, for the most part. As a maglev gains speed, it requires more and more energy just to remain at cruising speed. In addition to the magnetic drag force, conventional aerodynamic drag is present. Although both forms of drag are undesirable in many ways, there are some ways of utlizing them to our advantage. The drag forces can help brake a maglev train quite efficiently. In the introduction, there is a photograph of a Maglev train with aerodynamic brakes extended. Technical Problems A Study in the Feasibility of the SCM The major technical barrier to the mass adoption of Maglev as a new transportation system lies in problems with the superconducting magnets (hereafter SCM) used to levitate and power the trains. To date most Maglev trains have utilized an SCM made of NbTi. The SCM develops extremely high temperatures during operation, during which it must be cooled down to four degrees Kelvin to maintain its properties. Liquid helium is usually used for this purpose. The heat side effects are unavoidable, and thus engineers have focused on the efficacy of the cooling systems rather than designing a cooler SCM. Severe difficulties lie in the storage of the helium vapor, and the reliquification of the vapor once it has absorbed the tremendous heat of the SCM. Currently, this has been the slowest front for progress in Maglev technology. The current thought is that using cryorefrigeration techniques which constantly cool the magnet without flashing the helium prove to be the most promising. By winding the coolant through tubes surrounding the magnet, an even, constant cooling process will be effected. This maglev diagram known as the LM-500-01, also from Linear Motion Magnetic Systems, page 338, shows many of the onboard systems relating to refrigerating the superconducting magnets. These techniques, available today, is limited only by its tremendous expense, which points toward a bottom line for Maglev technology. Economical considerations have historically been a huge hurdle to otherwise very promising technological advances. This certainly rings true with the SCM and Maglev. The superconducting magnets themselves cost millions, and the cooling system technologies associated with the SCMs cost millions more. While in the lab the technologies have been very interesting, the conventional systems have so far won out, merely because of costs. Essentially, we must look at the opportunity costs involved to fully come to a conclusion with regards to the efficacy of this technology. Adopting the Maglev system worldwide would have severe costs, but with a tangible payoff over the next 20 years. We would see a definite reduction in operating costs and a great leap in efficiency, but only after the initial investment in the new technology. SCMs and cooling system RD have already cost us millions even billions of dollars, yet we are not as yet ready to commit to the Maglev system. Feasibility studies con ducted by the US Department of Transportation have shown a great need for the technology, yet no group ready to invest because of the shear number of RD dollars still needed with no real examples of Maglev success in this country. Judging from the progress of other countries, it is our recommendation that the United States take steps toward a greater use of Maglev to reduce its long term public transportation problems and take advantage of the low cost operation, reliability, and energy efficiency associated with Maglev. Weve stood on the shoulders of giants, and now its time to enumerate them . . . Bibliography:ReferencesWeve stood on the shoulders of giants, and now its time to enumerate them . . . Books1. D. Halliday, R. Resnik K. Krane, Physics, vol. 2, 4th ed. John Wiley Sons Inc., 1992. 2. Liang Chi Shen and Jin Au Kong, Applied Electromagnetism, 3rd ed. PWS Publishing Company, 1995. 3. I. Boldea and S.A. Nasar, Linear Motion and Electromagnetic Systems. John Wiley Sons Inc., 1995. Web Sites? The High Speed / Automated Transportation Home Page ? The Argonne National Laboratories Home Page ? The Railway Technical Research Institute ? Magnetbahn: The Unofficial Transrapid Homepage